How Does Makeup Affect Self Image

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Peer-reviewed

Research Article

The contrasting effects of torso image and self-esteem in the makeup usage

• Anthonieta Looman Mafra,
• Caio S. A. Silva,
• Marco A. C. Varella,
• Jaroslava Five. Valentova

10

• Published: March 25, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265197

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Abstract

Women wearing makeup are perceived past others as more than bonny, competent, dominant, and more socially prestigious. Individuals differ in how much and how oftentimes they use makeup. Some studies bear witness that women with lower self-esteem use more than makeup, probably to hibernate imperfections. Yet, women with higher self-esteem tin too utilize makeup to attract attention. This report verified whether social and general self-esteem and body image are associated with makeup usage in Brazilian women. We collected data from 1,483 women (M _age = 31.08; SD = eleven.15) about body image (advent orientation and advent evaluation), social self-esteem, general self-esteem, and makeup usage (frequency of makeup usage, fourth dimension spent applying makeup per twenty-four hours, and money spent on makeup per month). Appearance orientation positively predicted frequency of makeup usage, time spent applying makeup, and money spent on makeup, whereas appearance evaluation inversely predicted money spent on makeup per month. Social self-esteem and general cocky-esteem also positively predicted money spent on makeup, but in different directions. The results suggest that the significance given to advent and social interactions are importantly associated with makeup usage in women.

Commendation: Mafra AL, Silva CSA, Varella MAC, Valentova JV (2022) The contrasting furnishings of body epitome and self-esteem in the makeup usage. PLoS 1 17(3): e0265197. https://doi.org/x.1371/periodical.pone.0265197

Editor: Piotr Sorokowski, Academy of Wroclaw, POLAND

Received: July 22, 2021; Accepted: Feb 26, 2022; Published: March 25, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Mafra et al. This is an open access commodity distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in whatever medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: Data used to this paper can be found by accessing the following link: https://osf.io/d2z7e/ (DOI:10.17605/OSF.IO/D2Z7E).

Funding: AM was supported by the FAPESP (Fundação de amparo à pesquisa do estado de são paulo, Grant number: 2018/16370-5), CS was supported past CNPq (Conselho nacional de desenvolvimento científico e tecnológico, Grant number 143811/2019-three), MV was supported by the CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, Grant number 33002010037P0—MEC/CAPES).

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Surveys with American women showed that 78% spent one 60 minutes per solar day on their advent (eastward.g., hair treatments, dressing up, and makeup). Taking on boilerplate 55 minutes of women's solar day, hair and makeup seemed to demand more than time invested than other appearance related behaviors. [1] American women did not merely spend time on active appearance enhancing behaviors, but betwixt the most watched categories by women on YouTube, the peak two are appearance related [1]. Another study showed that American women spent, on average, 10 minutes on makeup in the morning and 85% tended to apply at least 16 products on their faces earlier leaving home. The results also ended that New York women spent effectually 300,000 US dollars during their lifetime on facial cosmetics [ii]. These examples illustrate the importance American women aspect to physical advent and self-care [e.g., 3].

Women's bewitchery is an of import factor in their lives, affecting how they feel well-nigh themselves. Several studies found a positive relationship between attractiveness and self-esteem in women [e.g., four, 5]. Greenbacks et al. [half dozen] institute that physical appearance is positively correlated with appearance satisfaction, and Grilo et al. [7] found a positive relation betwixt appearance evaluation and general self-esteem. However, these studies accept focused on full general self-esteem.

Whereas general cocky-esteem reflects how a person feels virtually themselves and their value in comparison to others [8], social self-esteem is how individuals feel nearly themselves during social interactions with others, and how those interactions affect their social value [ix]. In this manner, social self-esteem is more affected by social interactions than general self-esteem. Social self-esteem is positively linked to utilize of social network sites [10, xi] whereas general self-esteem appears to exist inversely proportional to social network sites [12, thirteen], especially in women [fourteen]. Vogel and colleagues [fifteen] found that social comparison negatively affected general cocky-esteem negatively. Thus, the increase in digital media usage increased the pressure level to look as good as possible considering people were increasingly exposed to images and videos of very expert looking individuals [16]. On the other hand, Steinsbekk and colleagues [fourteen] constitute that self-oriented social network sites use was not related to general self-esteem. Therefore, social network sites might increase social self-esteem by promoting more social interactions.

Although advent can be manipulated for ameliorate or for worse [17], the about mutual direction of appearance manipulation is appearance enhancement rather than worsening. Advent enhancement is considered to exist a cocky-promotion strategy in which one may capture more attention from others [18]. To enhance their attractiveness and to look better than same sex peers, women in Western societies use diverse tactics, such as high heels [e.g., 19], cosmetic surgeries [e.g., 20], and/or makeup [east.g., 21]. Interestingly, Kelley [16] interviewed 132 American college women and found that 37% of them reported they started using makeup considering they were unsatisfied with their appearance. In sixth grade girls with negative self-esteem, using makeup increases pleasure pursuit [22]. Gentina et al. [23] plant that makeup can too serve as a ritual of transition to adulthood amid adolescents.

A contempo experimental written report compared women'southward self-perception without makeup and with professionally applied makeup and showed that made upwardly women considered themselves more feminine, attractive, more than satisfied with appearance, and equally having higher self-esteem [24]. Similarly, women wearing their usual facial cosmetics rated themselves equally more attractive than when the cosmetics were removed [half dozen]. A cross-exclusive study further reported that women who rated themselves lower on concrete attractiveness used more makeup [25].

Although private differences in physical facial attractiveness are larger than intra-individual differences caused by facial cosmetics [26], makeup is used to better evaluation by others [6, 27] and may enhance prosocial feelings [25]. However, contrasting results were found regarding self-esteem and their relationship with makeup usage. Robertson and colleagues [25] found that self-esteem is negatively related to cosmetic usage whereas Al-Samydai et al. [28] findings pointed to a positive association. Even so, the contrasting results may exist due to the characteristics of the samples: the commencement study was conducted on xxx British undergraduate women and the latter on 606 Jordanian women. Studies investigating the clan betwixt self-esteem and makeup usage in different sociocultural settings are needed.

There are several ways to measure appearance, including perception of physical attractiveness (due east.g., facial or body attractiveness rated by others), morphological measures (eastward.chiliad., muscularity, body shape), and body image (e.g., individuals' attitude toward appearance). Body image is broadly used to measure advent because it is the reflection of individual satisfaction with their physical advent and the importance placed on always looking good [28]. Whereas appearance orientation measures the importance attributed to their ain advent, such as how important they call back it is to always look practiced, appearance evaluation measures how attractive the individual considers themselves, how satisfied they are with their ain body [28]. Thus, trunk image measures self-perception of their attractiveness and also the pressure they put on themselves to always look good. Researchers relating makeup and body prototype tend to approach only the appearance evaluation gene, leaving out advent orientation [due east.g. vi, 29], despite several studies showing the impact social pressure level exerts on individuals' self-perception [vii], self-esteem [10], and even well-being [eleven].

Thus, our goal was to test if makeup usage in women (frequency of makeup usage, money spent on makeup, and time spent applying makeup per 24-hour interval) is predicted by general and social cocky-esteems, and body image (self-perceived attractiveness and importance one gives to tidiness). Despite some contrasting findings, Al-Samydai et al. [28] pointed out that makeup enhances women'due south social interactions and performance and Robertson et al. [25] found a positive relationship between makeup usage and self-presentation and cocky-consciousness. Therefore, nosotros expected that makeup usage would exist predicted by social-related aspects (appearance orientation and social self-esteem) rather than past advent evaluation and general self-esteem.

Materials and methods

Participants

A total of 1,651 Brazilian women took office in the research. For the present study, i,483 women between 18 and 75 years old (M _age = 31.08; SD = 11.15) entered in the final analyses. All the 168 participants younger than xviii years had their data excluded. This sample was comprised 32.2% of women with graduate degrees, 26.1% undergraduate students, 20.6% women with completed undergraduate degrees, ten.0% women with secondary education, nine.3% graduate students, and ane.7% with no education or unfinished secondary education. About of the women considered themselves White (73.0%), 17.8% indicated mixed ethnicity (pardo), four.8% identified as Black, 2.8% every bit Asian, and one.6% indicated "Other" ethnicity.

About family income, virtually of the participants (27.4%) alleged from approximately The states$ 499 to 998 (exchange rate of the mean solar day Dec 28 2021), 19.4% declared from US$ 998 to 1,496, 15.4% declared from US$ 166 to 498, 15% declared more than United states$ 2,494, 11.8% declared from The states$ 1,497 to i,995, viii% from US$ 1,996 to two,493, and 3.i% up to United states of america$ 165. The average Brazilian income per capita was US$ 313 in 2018 (when about of the data was nerveless) [30]. Virtually participants were from Southeast Brazil.

Instruments

Participants completed a Qualtrics online questionnaire (Qualtrics, Provo, UT), containing sociodemographic questions, Cosmetics Use Inventory and boosted questions, Social cocky-esteem questionnaire, Full general self-esteem questionnaire, and Body image scale.

Sociodemographic questions.

This section included questions such equally age, sex, gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, relationship condition, current pregnancy, and current socioeconomic condition (educational level and family income).

Cosmetics use inventory [31].

Nosotros used a part of an adapted version of the inventory [32] in which participants rate on a 7-point-scale the frequency they use from "never" to "e'er": one. base, concealer, and/or pulverization; ii. mascara; three. eyeliner or eye pencil; four. shade; and 5. lipstick and/or gloss. Higher averaged scores stand for to higher levels of facial cosmetic utilize. We used the version translated (and back translated) into Brazilian Portuguese. All the variables were positively associated (i.e., women who use more 1 type of makeup tend to utilise the other types of makeup more frequently, as well) (Meet S1 Table in S1 File).

Further, participants responded nigh their monthly expenses with makeup using the following options (in our survey in Brazilian Reals): USD 0, up to USD 2.fifty, USD 2.50–six, USD 6–ten, USD 10–15, USD 15–20, USD xx–25, USD 25–50, more than than USD 50. Time spent applying makeup per day was responded using the following options: less than 5 minutes, 5–x minutes, 10–20 minutes, 20–30 minutes, more than than 30 minutes.

Social self-esteem questionnaire [9].

This is a 30-item instrument composed of phrases describing 1's power to deal with different social situations. The participant answers how accurately each sentence describes what her behavior or feelings would exist in each situation on a six-point Likert scale. The higher the score, the greater the participant'southward ease in dealing with social situations (e.k., "I make friends easily"). Nosotros used the version translated (and back translated) into Brazilian Portuguese (Cronbach α = 0.95).

General self-esteem questionnaire [8].

This is a 10-item instrument with a 4-bespeak Likert response scale. It contains affirmations about individuals' feelings and behavior most themselves (east.chiliad., "On the whole, I am satisfied with myself"). We used the version translated and adapted into Portuguese and validated for the Brazilian population (Cronbach α = 0.91) [33].

Body image calibration [28].

This is an attitudinal torso image instrument composed of two subscales measuring advent evaluation and appearance orientation with a v-signal Likert response calibration. The subscales are composed of 17 statements, 11 of them related to appearance orientation (e.grand. "It is important that I always expect good") and six related to appearance evaluation (e.g. "I like my looks simply the way they are"). We used the version translated (and back translated) into Brazilian Portuguese (Cronbach α = 0.82).

Process

After written upstanding blessing by the local Institutional Review Board of Anhembi Morumbi University (nr. ii.960.684), participants were recruited through social media and institutional e-mails. Thus, it was a sample based on convenience, and does not correspond the Brazilian population. Participants completed informed consent and then responded to anonymous online questionnaires. Inclusion criteria were to have access to the Cyberspace and to be a Brazilian woman 18 years one-time or older. Participants took xxx minutes on average to complete the survey.

Data analyses

First, using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 21 (IBM Corp., Armonk, N.Y., USA), we checked data normality (See S2 Table in S1 File). Most data were not normally distributed, and we thus conducted exploratory non-parametric correlations among makeup usage, social and general self-esteems, and torso image in order to verify correlations amidst the independent variables and examination for multicollinearity. The independent variables were weakly and moderately associated, with low take a chance of multicollinearity (VIF ranged from 1.002 to two.002).

Second, to test for a possible effect on makeup usage, social and general cocky-esteems, and body prototype entered as independent variables into categorical regressions (CATREG). We chose to use this analysis because it uses an optimal scaling feature that solves the trouble of lack of linearity of the scales and it calculates an optimal regression equation and the result of each independent variable (appearance orientation, appearance evaluation, general self-esteem, and social self-esteem) on the dependent variables (frequency of makeup usage, money spent on makeup, and time spent doing makeup per twenty-four hour period). All statistical tests were performed with the significance level indicated at .05.

Results

Makeup usage descriptives

Nigh participants use makeup half of the fourth dimension (26.two%) or sometimes (24.nine%) and 44.nine% spend less than five minutes applying makeup per mean solar day. Besides, 19.vi% spent goose egg and 19.6% spent up to USD 2.50 on makeup per calendar month. See S3 to S5 Tables in S1 File for detailed data.

Correlations between makeup usage and social and general cocky-esteem, and body epitome attitudes

Kendall correlation indicated that money spent on makeup per month, time spent applying makeup per day, and frequency of makeup usage are moderately and positively correlated (See Table one). Farther, these three measures of makeup usage are moderately and positively correlated to appearance orientation. Money spent on makeup per calendar month and frequency of makeup usage are weakly and positively related to social self-esteem. Frequency of makeup usage also presented a positive and weak correlation with general cocky-esteem. Social self-esteem was moderately and positively correlated with general cocky-esteem, weakly and positively associated with advent evaluation and advent orientation. General self-esteem was moderately and positively associated with advent evaluation.

The sociodemographic variables (age, family unit income, and educational level) were weakly and positively associated with coin spent on makeup, frequency of makeup usage, general self-esteem, social self-esteem, and appearance evaluation. There were no associations among the sociodemographic variables and time spent on makeup and appearance orientation.

The issue of general and social cocky-esteems and body prototype on makeup usage

To test for a possible result of social and personal self-esteems, and body image on makeup usage, we conducted three categorical regression models, with money spent on makeup per calendar month, fourth dimension spent applying makeup per solar day, and frequency of makeup usage as dependent variables. We also included the sociodemographic variables historic period, family income, and educational level in the analyses in society to control the variability of our sample (Table 2).

Only appearance orientation and age predicted time spent applying makeup per day and frequency of makeup usage, whereas all variables except educational level predicted money spent on makeup.

Discussion

The aim of the study was to verify if general and social self-esteems and body prototype (i.e., appearance orientation and appearance evaluation) were associated with makeup usage among Brazilian women. Birthday, our findings suggested that women who experience comfortable with their appearance and have higher general self-esteem spent less coin on makeup whereas women with higher social self-esteem spent more money on makeup; and women who allocated more importance to the fashion they looked not only spent more money on makeup but spent more than time applying makeup and using makeup more frequently.

Advent orientation was a significant predictor of makeup usage. Thus, women who give more importance to their advent and are always nifty, use makeup more often, spend more time applying makeup, and spend more than money on makeup. Similarly, Robertson et al. [25] constitute a positive relationship between cosmetic usage and self-presentation. In women, advent orientation is also linked to neuroticism and narcissism [34], eating disorders [35], and drive for muscularity in men [36]. Women frequently accept their bodies objectified, i.east. treated like an object that exists to please others. Through self-objectification, they disconnect their bodies from their persons, and sometimes internalize this perspective and start evaluating and treating themselves as mere bodies [37], highlighting the visual assessment. Women with college levels of self-objectification would identify more attending to their appearance and grooming instead of other aspects, such as identity development. Therefore, appearance orientation may be used every bit a measure of self-objectification [34]. A deeper investigation well-nigh appearance orientation and self-objectification should be conducted in guild to clarify if they are in fact measuring similar traits.

Farther, when adolescents with positive body image were interviewed, they claimed their family and friends used to talk about their appearance, just not about their bodies (i.due east., they comment about their wearable, hair fashion, makeup, etc., but not near their concrete traits, such as how fat they are [38]). Thus, someone's appearance orientation is more liable in commentaries than someone's body. It suggests that appearance orientation would be more susceptible to social influences than advent evaluation, and consequently, would exist positively related to appearance modifications, including makeup usage. This would also explain why accepting oneself is negatively related to purchasing makeup.

Corroborating Frisén and Holmqvist'due south [38] results, nosotros found that women with higher appearance evaluation, i.e. women who were more than satisfied with their appearance, tended to spend less money on makeup. Our study supported findings of Robertson and colleagues [25] who reported an inverse association between corrective usage and self-rated physical appearance. For these individuals, makeup usage may not exist related to satisfaction with their body, so it does not brand them experience physically more than bonny. Indeed, cosmetics have a smaller touch on individuals higher in attractiveness than on less bonny individuals [26].

Frederick and Reynolds [39] presented the cognitive behavioral model in which makeup would be an appearance fixing strategy, beingness a response to emotions and thoughts related to body paradigm. That is, factors experienced throughout an individual'due south life influenced one's body image past associating their advent schema. Future experiences can activate this model, influencing how this new information is processed. The thoughts and emotions related to one's schema will answer by adjusting self-regulatory processes. Makeup usage, thus, would exist a way to amend body paradigm through fixing imperfections in people who are not satisfied with their appearance (appearance schema) and are concerned most it.

Additionally, Mafra et al. [40] conducted a study on Brazilian men and women with low socioeconomic status and found that spending more than money on cosmetics did not make women feel better near themselves (e.1000., more attractive). According to a review by Tylka and Wood-Barcalow [41], positive body image is the acceptance of one's own trunk, feeling happy and complete even knowing its imperfections and that it is not consistent with idealized images. Nevertheless, others' perceptions also may influence individuals' positive body epitome [39] equally well as the type of watched advertisement may influence women's self-esteem, torso paradigm, and mood [42].

Social cocky-esteem is a positive predictor of money spent on makeup per month. Although Robertson et al. [25] found a negative clan betwixt cosmetic usage and social conviction, boyish girls reported to use makeup because they wanted to feel admired past the public [23], suggesting that makeup functions improve social impressions. In a contempo review, Davis and Arnocky [18] argued that makeup may be used every bit a strategy to enhance social status. In fact, besides bringing advantages in attracting mates and competing with rivals [21], makeup usage was positively associated with social interaction and performance [43], with women who use makeup being perceived every bit more competent [44], more ascendant, and higher in social prestige [45]. As social interactions are important for people with high social self-esteem levels, makeup may be a tool to increase confidence in interpersonal relationships. On the other hand, women who feel good about themselves (i.eastward., with high general cocky-esteem) tended to spend less money on makeup usage. This result also corroborated Robertson et al. [25], in which a negative correlation between makeup usage and full general self-esteem was found.

According to a recent study, makeup use also affects other women. Later being exposed to pictures of same-sex peers wearing makeup, Australian undergraduate women reported willingness to change their appearance, for example, pilus, skin [29]. Possibly, women who give more importance to physical advent invest more than money also on other dazzler products, not just makeup. Hereafter enquiry investigating how other products that can enhance women's appearance relate to advent orientation and ideal stereotypes of beauty could make a great contribution to the field.

Overall, our report suggested that women with greater self-esteem associated with social interactions would attribute higher importance to their appearance, resulting in more makeup usage. Makeup usage may raise women's confidence to bargain with social situations. However, our study was cross-exclusive, thus an experimental study could complement our approach by testing if social-related aspects influence the consumption of makeup more than intrinsic-related aspects. Another important signal to highlight is that the social influence on makeup usage is rather speculative since we have non directly asked the participants virtually the possible impact of the media and social networks on their body paradigm. Finally, our sample was composed past a bulk of highly educated Caucasian women of medium to high family unit incomes, which does not fully represent the Brazilian population (mostly equanimous past Black and mixed ethnicities in low educational levels and low family unit income earnings). A study trying to attain more women outside the university may better represent the Brazilian population.

Supporting information

Acknowledgments

Nosotros are grateful for English proofreading and helpful suggestions made past Prof. Daniel J. Kruger. We are also grateful to the participants and researchers who donated their time for this to become a reality.

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How Does Makeup Affect Self Image,

Source: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0265197

Posted by: pacepura1985.blogspot.com

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